Symmetrically Arranged Sensor Electrodes in an Ophthalmic Electrochemical Sensor

ABSTRACT

An eye-mountable device includes an electrochemical sensor embedded in a polymeric material configured for mounting to a surface of an eye. The electrochemical sensor includes a working electrode, a reference electrode, and a reagent that selectively reacts with an analyte to generate a sensor measurement related to a concentration of the analyte in a fluid to which the eye-mountable device is exposed. The working electrode can have a first side edge and a second side edge. The reference electrode can be situated such that at least a portion of the first and second side edges of the working electrode are adjacent respective sections of the reference electrode.

BACKGROUND

Unless otherwise indicated herein, the materials described in thissection are not prior art to the claims in this application and are notadmitted to be prior art by inclusion in this section.

An electrochemical amperometric sensor measures a concentration of ananalyte by measuring a current generated through electrochemicaloxidation or reduction reactions of the analyte at a working electrodeof the sensor. A reduction reaction occurs when electrons aretransferred from the electrode to the analyte, whereas an oxidationreaction occurs when electrons are transferred from the analyte to theelectrode. The direction of the electron transfer is dependent upon theelectrical potentials applied to the working electrode by apotentiostat. A counter electrode and/or reference electrode is used tocomplete a circuit with the working electrode and allow the generatedcurrent to flow. When the working electrode is appropriately biased, theoutput current is proportional to the reaction rate, which provides ameasure of the concentration of the analyte surrounding the workingelectrode.

In some examples, a reagent is localized proximate the working electrodeto selectively react with a desired analyte. For example, glucoseoxidase can be fixed near the working electrode to react with glucoseand release hydrogen peroxide, which is then electrochemically detectedby the working electrode to indicate the presence of glucose. Otherenzymes and/or reagents can be used to detect other analytes.

SUMMARY

An ophthalmic device includes an electrochemical sensor configured togenerate sensor readings based on analyte concentrations in solutionsthe ophthalmic device is exposed to. The electrochemical sensor includesa working electrode and a reference electrode arranged such thatportions of the working electrode are at least partially surrounded onopposing sides by portions of the reference electrode. Upon applying avoltage across the sensor electrodes, the surrounded portions of theworking electrode develop a voltage gradient that is substantiallysymmetric between the opposing sides. The two opposing sides aretherefore at similar voltages and both side edges can induceelectrochemical reactions with similar efficacy. Relative to anarrangement in which the working electrode has only one edge adjacent areference electrode, the symmetric arrangement provides a relativelygreater length of the edges of the working electrode facing thereference electrode.

Some embodiments of the present disclosure provide an eye-mountabledevice including a polymeric material, a substrate, an antenna, anelectrochemical sensor, and a controller. The polymeric material canhave a concave surface and a convex surface. The concave surface can beconfigured to be removably mounted over a corneal surface and the convexsurface is configured to be compatible with eyelid motion when theconcave surface is so mounted. The substrate can be at least partiallyembedded within the polymeric material. The antenna can be disposed onthe substrate. The electrochemical sensor can be disposed on thesubstrate and can include a working electrode and a reference electrode.The working electrode can have a first side edge and a second side edge.The reference electrode can be situated such that at least a portion ofthe first and second side edges of the working electrode are adjacentrespective sections of the reference electrode. The controller can beelectrically connected to the electrochemical sensor and the antenna.The controller can be configured to: (i) apply a voltage between theworking electrode and the reference electrode sufficient to generate anamperometric current related to the concentration of an analyte in afluid to which the eye-mountable device is exposed; (ii) measure theamperometric current; and (iii) use the antenna to indicate the measuredamperometric current.

Some embodiments of the present disclosure provide a system including aneye-mountable device and a reader. The eye-mountable device can includea polymeric material, a substrate, an antenna, an electrochemicalsensor, and a controller. The polymeric material can have a concavesurface and a convex surface. The concave surface can be configured tobe removably mounted over a corneal surface and the convex surface isconfigured to be compatible with eyelid motion when the concave surfaceis so mounted. The substrate can be at least partially embedded withinthe polymeric material. The antenna can be disposed on the substrate.The electrochemical sensor can be disposed on the substrate and caninclude a working electrode and a reference electrode. The workingelectrode can have a first side edge and a second side edge. Thereference electrode can be situated such that at least a portion of thefirst and second side edges of the working electrode are adjacentrespective sections of the reference electrode. The controller can beelectrically connected to the electrochemical sensor and the antenna.The controller can be configured to: (i) apply a voltage between theworking electrode and the reference electrode sufficient to generate anamperometric current related to the concentration of an analyte in afluid to which the eye-mountable device is exposed; (ii) measure theamperometric current; and (iii) use the antenna to indicate the measuredamperometric current. The reader can include one or more antennas and aprocessing system. The one or more antennas can be configured to: (i)transmit radio frequency radiation to power the eye-mountable device,and (ii) receive indications of the measured amperometric current viabackscatter radiation received at the one or more antennas. Theprocessing system can be configured to determine a tear film analyteconcentration value based on the backscatter radiation.

Some embodiments of the present disclosure include a device. The devicecan include a bio-compatible polymeric material, a substrate, anantenna, an electrochemical sensor, and a controller. The substrate canbe at least partially embedded within the bio-compatible polymericmaterial. The antenna can be disposed on the substrate. Theelectrochemical sensor can be disposed on the substrate and can includea working electrode and a reference electrode. The working electrode canhave a first side edge and a second side edge. The reference electrodecan be situated such that at least a portion of the first and secondside edges of the working electrode are adjacent respective sections ofthe reference electrode. The controller can be electrically connected tothe electrochemical sensor and the antenna. The controller can beconfigured to: (i) apply a voltage between the working electrode and thereference electrode sufficient to generate an amperometric currentrelated to the concentration of an analyte in a fluid to which theeye-mountable device is exposed; (ii) measure the amperometric current;and (iii) use the antenna to indicate the measured amperometric current.

Some embodiments of the present disclosure provide an eye-mountabledevice including a polymeric material. The eye-mountable device caninclude an electrochemical sensor with means for generating anamperometric current from sensor electrodes exposed to a solutionincluding an analyte. The sensor electrodes can include means forproviding an approximately symmetric voltage gradient to more than oneside of a working electrode.

These as well as other aspects, advantages, and alternatives, willbecome apparent to those of ordinary skill in the art by reading thefollowing detailed description, with reference where appropriate to theaccompanying drawings.

BRIEF DESCRIPTION OF THE DRAWINGS

FIG. 1 is a block diagram of an example system that includes aneye-mountable device in wireless communication with an external reader.

FIG. 2A is a top view of an example eye-mountable device.

FIG. 2B is an aspect view of the example eye-mountable device shown inFIG. 2A.

FIG. 2C is a side cross-section view of the example eye-mountable deviceshown in FIGS. 2A and 2B while mounted to a corneal surface of an eye.

FIG. 2D is a side cross-section view enhanced to show the tear filmlayers surrounding the surfaces of the example eye-mountable device whenmounted as shown in FIG. 2C.

FIG. 3 is a functional block diagram of an example system forelectrochemically measuring a tear film analyte concentration.

FIG. 4A is a flowchart of an example process for operating anelectrochemical sensor in an eye-mountable device to measure a tear filmanalyte concentration.

FIG. 4B is a flowchart of an example process for operating an externalreader to interrogate an electrochemical sensor in an eye-mountabledevice to measure a tear film analyte concentration.

FIG. 5A shows an example configuration in which an electrochemicalsensor detects an analyte that diffuses from a tear film through apolymeric material.

FIG. 5B shows an example configuration in which an electrochemicalsensor detects an analyte in a tear film that contacts the sensor via achannel in a polymeric material.

FIG. 5C shows an example configuration in which an electrochemicalsensor detects an analyte that diffuses from a tear film through athinned region of a polymeric material.

FIG. 6A illustrates one example symmetric arrangement for electrodes inan electrochemical sensor.

FIG. 6B illustrates another example symmetric arrangement for electrodesin an electrochemical sensor.

FIG. 7A illustrates an example coplanar arrangement for electrodes in anelectrochemical sensor disposed on a surface of a flattened ringsubstrate.

FIG. 7B illustrates the arrangement in FIG. 7A when embedded in apolymeric material with a channel positioned to expose theelectrochemical sensor electrodes.

DETAILED DESCRIPTION

In the following detailed description, reference is made to theaccompanying figures, which form a part hereof. In the figures, similarsymbols typically identify similar components, unless context dictatesotherwise. The illustrative embodiments described in the detaileddescription, figures, and claims are not meant to be limiting. Otherembodiments may be utilized, and other changes may be made, withoutdeparting from the scope of the subject matter presented herein. It willbe readily understood that the aspects of the present disclosure, asgenerally described herein, and illustrated in the figures, can bearranged, substituted, combined, separated, and designed in a widevariety of different configurations, all of which are explicitlycontemplated herein.

I. Overview

An ophthalmic sensing platform can include an electrochemical sensor,control electronics and an antenna all situated on a substrate embeddedin a polymeric material formed to be contact mounted to an eye. Thecontrol electronics can operate the sensor to perform readings and canoperate the antenna to wirelessly communicate the readings from thesensor to an external reader via the antenna. The polymeric material canbe in the form of a round lens with a concave curvature configured tomount to a corneal surface of an eye. The substrate can be embedded nearthe periphery of the polymeric material to avoid interference withincident light received closer to the central region of the cornea. Thesensor can be arranged on the substrate to face outward away from thecorneal surface. A channel in the polymeric material can expose thesensor electrodes to tear film that coats the outer surface of thepolymeric material, such as tear film distributed by eyelid motion.

The ophthalmic sensing platform can be powered via radiated energyharvested at the sensing platform. Power can be provided by lightenergizing photovoltaic cells included on the sensing platform.Additionally or alternatively, power can be provided by radio frequencyenergy harvested from the antenna. A rectifier and/or regulator can beincorporated with the control electronics to generate a stable DCvoltage to power the sensing platform from the harvested energy. Theantenna can be arranged as a loop of conductive material with leadsconnected to the control electronics. In some embodiments, such a loopantenna can wirelessly also communicate the sensor readings to anexternal reader by modifying the impedance of the loop antenna so as tomodify backscatter radiation from the antenna.

Human tear fluid contains a variety of inorganic electrolytes (e.g.,Ca²⁺, Mg²⁺, Cl⁻), organic solutes (e.g., glucose, lactate, etc.),proteins, and lipids. A contact lens with one or more sensors that canmeasure one or more of these components provides a convenientnon-invasive platform to diagnose or monitor health related problems. Anexample is a glucose sensing contact lens that can potentially be usedfor diabetic patients to monitor and control their blood glucose level.

A controller, which may include a potentiostat, is connected to theelectrodes to bias the working electrode with respect to the referenceelectrode while monitoring the current between the two. The workingelectrode is biased to a suitable potential to generate electrochemicalreactions of a particular analyte. The monitored current then providesan indication of analyte concentration.

In an electrochemical sensor with two electrodes, current-generatingelectrochemical reactions tend to occur with greatest efficiency alongthe working electrode at points nearest the reference electrode (e.g.,where the local voltage gradient is greatest between the twoelectrodes). In some embodiments disclosed herein, a working electrodeincludes a section that is surrounded, on opposing side edges, bycorresponding sections of the reference electrode. The increased lengthof the edges of the working electrode facing the reference electrode(e.g., two side edges versus one) can thereby increase the reaction areafor electrochemical reactions, because reactions occur symmetricallyalong both opposing side edges of the portions of the working electrodesurrounded by the reference electrode. Sensors incorporating suchsymmetric electrode arrangements can generate relatively greateramperometric currents for a given analyte concentration, therebyenhancing the sensitivity of such sensors. Moreover, symmetric electrodearrangements disclosed herein can effectively increase the reaction areaof the sensor electrodes (e.g., the region immediately adjacent the sideedges of the working electrode that are adjacent the referenceelectrode) without substantially increasing the total electrode size.

The amperometric current generated by a particular sensor depends, amongother things, on the size of the electrochemical reaction region on theworking electrode where reduction or oxidation reactions occur. Suchcurrent-generating reactions occur at the working electrodepreferentially along the edges of the working electrode nearest thereference electrode (i.e., where the voltage gradient is greatest).Thus, the size of the reaction region of a given electrochemical sensoris determined, at least in part, by the length of the working electrodeside edges that are adjacent to portions of the reference electrode.

In some examples, the two electrodes can be arranged such that theworking electrode is surrounded on both sides by portions of thereference electrode. As such, current-generating electrochemicalreactions can occur at both side edges of the working electrode withcomparable efficacy. For example, in an approximately co-planarelectrode arrangement, the working electrode may include narrowextensions that are positioned between portions of the referenceelectrode on either side. In some cases the two electrodes may eachresemble a comb, with a pattern of fingers extending from a base (e.g.,the working electrode can have fingers about 25 μm wide and thereference electrode can have fingers about 125 μm wide). The two sets offingers from the respective electrodes can then be positioned tointerlock, without contacting, such that a given one of the workingelectrode extensions/fingers is surrounded by respective portions of thereference electrode. The resulting alternating (or interdigitated)geometry can desirably generate a relatively greater sensor current fora given analyte concentration due to the increased reaction region thatincludes both side edges of the working electrode.

Some embodiments of the present disclosure therefore provide forelectrode arrangements in which a working electrode includes at leastone extension surrounded on both sides by portions of a referenceelectrode. The working electrode extension (and corresponding portionsof the reference electrode) can be arranged as interdigitatedsubstantially parallel bars or as concentric rings, for example. Ineither case, the working electrode can includes a narrow extension thatis surrounded by relatively wider portions of the reference electrode onboth sides. As a result, during operation of such an electrochemicalsensor, the working electrode causes current-generating reactions totake place along both side edges of the two narrow extension(s) withsubstantially comparable efficacy. The resulting amperometric current istherefore greater than would be produced by a sensor with a workingelectrode only adjacent a reference electrode along a single side edge.

II. Example Ophthalmic Electronics Platform

FIG. 1 is a block diagram of a system 100 that includes an eye-mountabledevice 110 in wireless communication with an external reader 180. Theexposed regions of the eye-mountable device 110 are made of a polymericmaterial 120 formed to be contact-mounted to a corneal surface of aneye. A substrate 130 is embedded in the polymeric material 120 toprovide a mounting surface for a power supply 140, a controller 150,bio-interactive electronics 160, and a communication antenna 170. Thebio-interactive electronics 160 are operated by the controller 150. Thepower supply 140 supplies operating voltages to the controller 150and/or the bio-interactive electronics 160. The antenna 170 is operatedby the controller 150 to communicate information to and/or from theeye-mountable device 110. The antenna 170, the controller 150, the powersupply 140, and the bio-interactive electronics 160 can all be situatedon the embedded substrate 130. Because the eye-mountable device 110includes electronics and is configured to be contact-mounted to an eye,it is also referred to herein as an ophthalmic electronics platform.

To facilitate contact-mounting, the polymeric material 120 can have aconcave surface configured to adhere (“mount”) to a moistened cornealsurface (e.g., by capillary forces with a tear film coating the cornealsurface). Additionally or alternatively, the eye-mountable device 110can be adhered by a vacuum force between the corneal surface and thepolymeric material due to the concave curvature. While mounted with theconcave surface against the eye, the outward-facing surface of thepolymeric material 120 can have a convex curvature that is formed to notinterfere with eye-lid motion while the eye-mountable device 110 ismounted to the eye. For example, the polymeric material 120 can be asubstantially transparent curved polymeric disk shaped similarly to acontact lens.

The polymeric material 120 can include one or more biocompatiblematerials, such as those employed for use in contact lenses or otherophthalmic applications involving direct contact with the cornealsurface. The polymeric material 120 can optionally be formed in partfrom such biocompatible materials or can include an outer coating withsuch biocompatible materials. The polymeric material 120 can includematerials configured to moisturize the corneal surface, such ashydrogels and the like. In some instances, the polymeric material 120can be a deformable (“non-rigid”) material to enhance wearer comfort. Insome instances, the polymeric material 120 can be shaped to provide apredetermined, vision-correcting optical power, such as can be providedby a contact lens.

The substrate 130 includes one or more surfaces suitable for mountingthe bio-interactive electronics 160, the controller 150, the powersupply 140, and the antenna 170. The substrate 130 can be employed bothas a mounting platform for chip-based circuitry (e.g., by flip-chipmounting) and/or as a platform for patterning conductive materials(e.g., gold, platinum, palladium, titanium, copper, aluminum, silver,metals, other conductive materials, combinations of these, etc. tocreate electrodes, interconnects, antennae, etc. In some embodiments,substantially transparent conductive materials (e.g., indium tin oxide)can be patterned on the substrate 130 to form circuitry, electrodes,etc. For example, the antenna 170 can be formed by depositing a patternof gold or another conductive material on the substrate 130. Similarly,interconnects 151, 157 between the controller 150 and thebio-interactive electronics 160, and between the controller 150 and theantenna 170, respectively, can be formed by depositing suitable patternsof conductive materials on the substrate 130. A combination of resists,masks, and deposition techniques can be employed to pattern materials onthe substrate 130. The substrate 130 can be a relatively rigid material,such as polyethylene terephthalate (“PET”) or another materialsufficient to structurally support the circuitry and/or electronicswithin the polymeric material 120. The eye-mountable device 110 canalternatively be arranged with a group of unconnected substrates ratherthan a single substrate. For example, the controller 150 and abio-sensor or other bio-interactive electronic component can be mountedto one substrate, while the antenna 170 is mounted to another substrateand the two can be electrically connected via the interconnects 157.

In some embodiments, the bio-interactive electronics 160 (and thesubstrate 130) can be positioned away from the center of theeye-mountable device 110 and thereby avoid interference with lighttransmission to the eye through the center of the eye-mountable device110. For example, where the eye-mountable device 110 is shaped as aconcave-curved disk, the substrate 130 can be embedded around theperiphery (e.g., near the outer circumference) of the disk. In someembodiments, the bio-interactive electronics 160 (and the substrate 130)can be positioned in the center region of the eye-mountable device 110.The bio-interactive electronics 160 and/or substrate 130 can besubstantially transparent to incoming visible light to mitigateinterference with light transmission to the eye. Moreover, in someembodiments, the bio-interactive electronics 160 can include a pixelarray 164 that emits and/or transmits light to be perceived by the eyeaccording to display instructions. Thus, the bio-interactive electronics160 can optionally be positioned in the center of the eye-mountabledevice so as to generate perceivable visual cues to a wearer of theeye-mountable device 110, such as by displaying information via thepixel array 164.

The substrate 130 can be shaped as a flattened ring with a radial widthdimension sufficient to provide a mounting platform for the embeddedelectronics components. The substrate 130 can have a thicknesssufficiently small to allow the substrate 130 to be embedded in thepolymeric material 120 without influencing the profile of theeye-mountable device 110. The substrate 130 can have a thicknesssufficiently large to provide structural stability suitable forsupporting the electronics mounted thereon. For example, the substrate130 can be shaped as a ring with a diameter of about 10 millimeters, aradial width of about 1 millimeter (e.g., an outer radius 1 millimeterlarger than an inner radius), and a thickness of about 50 micrometers.The substrate 130 can optionally be aligned with the curvature of theeye-mounting surface of the eye-mountable device 110 (e.g., convexsurface). For example, the substrate 130 can be shaped along the surfaceof an imaginary cone between two circular segments that define an innerradius and an outer radius. In such an example, the surface of thesubstrate 130 along the surface of the imaginary cone defines aninclined surface that is approximately aligned with the curvature of theeye mounting surface at that radius.

The power supply 140 is configured to harvest ambient energy to powerthe controller 150 and bio-interactive electronics 160. For example, aradio-frequency energy-harvesting antenna 142 can capture energy fromincident radio radiation. Additionally or alternatively, solar cell(s)144 (“photovoltaic cells”) can capture energy from incoming ultraviolet,visible, and/or infrared radiation. Furthermore, an inertial powerscavenging system can be included to capture energy from ambientvibrations. The energy harvesting antenna 142 can optionally be adual-purpose antenna that is also used to communicate information to theexternal reader 180. That is, the functions of the communication antenna170 and the energy harvesting antenna 142 can be accomplished with thesame physical antenna.

A rectifier/regulator 146 can be used to condition the captured energyto a stable DC supply voltage 141 that is supplied to the controller150. For example, the energy harvesting antenna 142 can receive incidentradio frequency radiation. Varying electrical signals on the leads ofthe antenna 142 are output to the rectifier/regulator 146. Therectifier/regulator 146 rectifies the varying electrical signals to a DCvoltage and regulates the rectified DC voltage to a level suitable foroperating the controller 150. Additionally or alternatively, outputvoltage from the solar cell(s) 144 can be regulated to a level suitablefor operating the controller 150. The rectifier/regulator 146 caninclude one or more energy storage devices to mitigate high frequencyvariations in the ambient energy gathering antenna 142 and/or solarcell(s) 144. For example, one or more energy storage devices (e.g., acapacitor, an inductor, etc.) can be connected to the output of therectifier 146 and configured to function as a low-pass filter.

The controller 150 is turned on when the DC supply voltage 141 isprovided to the controller 150, and the logic in the controller 150operates the bio-interactive electronics 160 and the antenna 170. Thecontroller 150 can include logic circuitry configured to operate thebio-interactive electronics 160 so as to interact with a biologicalenvironment of the eye-mountable device 110. The interaction couldinvolve the use of one or more components, such as analyte bio-sensor162, in bio-interactive electronics 160 to obtain input from thebiological environment. Additionally or alternatively, the interactioncould involve the use of one or more components, such as pixel array164, to provide an output to the biological environment.

In one example, the controller 150 includes a sensor interface module152 that is configured to operate analyte bio-sensor 162. The analytebio-sensor 162 can be, for example, an amperometric electrochemicalsensor that includes a working electrode and a reference electrode. Avoltage can be applied between the working and reference electrodes tocause an analyte to undergo an electrochemical reaction (e.g., areduction and/or oxidation reaction) at the working electrode. Theelectrochemical reaction can generate an amperometric current that canbe measured through the working electrode. The amperometric current canbe dependent on the analyte concentration. Thus, the amount of theamperometric current that is measured through the working electrode canprovide an indication of analyte concentration. In some embodiments, thesensor interface module 152 can be a potentiostat configured to apply avoltage difference between working and reference electrodes whilemeasuring a current through the working electrode.

In some instances, a reagent can also be included to sensitize theelectrochemical sensor to one or more desired analytes. For example, alayer of glucose oxidase (“GOx”) proximal to the working electrode cancatalyze glucose oxidation to generate hydrogen peroxide (H₂O₂). Thehydrogen peroxide can then be electrooxidized at the working electrode,which releases electrons to the working electrode, resulting in anamperometric current that can be measured through the working electrode.

${{glucose} + O_{2}}\overset{GOx}{\rightarrow}{{H_{2}O_{2}} + {gluconolactone}}$H₂O₂ → 2 H⁺ + O₂ + 2 e⁻

The current generated by either reduction or oxidation reactions isapproximately proportionate to the reaction rate. Further, the reactionrate is dependent on the rate of analyte molecules reaching theelectrochemical sensor electrodes to fuel the reduction or oxidationreactions, either directly or catalytically through a reagent. In asteady state, where analyte molecules diffuse to the electrochemicalsensor electrodes from a sampled region at approximately the same ratethat additional analyte molecules diffuse to the sampled region fromsurrounding regions, the reaction rate is approximately proportionate tothe concentration of the analyte molecules. The current measured throughthe working electrode thus provides an indication of the analyteconcentration.

The controller 150 can optionally include a display driver module 154for operating a pixel array 164. The pixel array 164 can be an array ofseparately programmable light transmitting, light reflecting, and/orlight emitting pixels arranged in rows and columns. The individual pixelcircuits can optionally include liquid crystal technologies,microelectromechanical technologies, emissive diode technologies, etc.to selectively transmit, reflect, and/or emit light according toinformation from the display driver module 154. Such a pixel array 164can also optionally include more than one color of pixels (e.g., red,green, and blue pixels) to render visual content in color. The displaydriver module 154 can include, for example, one or more data linesproviding programming information to the separately programmed pixels inthe pixel array 164 and one or more addressing lines for setting groupsof pixels to receive such programming information. Such a pixel array164 situated on the eye can also include one or more lenses to directlight from the pixel array to a focal plane perceivable by the eye.

The controller 150 can also include a communication circuit 156 forsending and/or receiving information via the antenna 170. Thecommunication circuit 156 can optionally include one or moreoscillators, mixers, frequency injectors, etc. to modulate and/ordemodulate information on a carrier frequency to be transmitted and/orreceived by the antenna 170. In some examples, the eye-mountable device110 is configured to indicate an output from a bio-sensor by modulatingan impedance of the antenna 170 in a manner that is perceivably by theexternal reader 180. For example, the communication circuit 156 cancause variations in the amplitude, phase, and/or frequency ofbackscatter radiation from the antenna 170, and such variations can bedetected by the reader 180.

The controller 150 is connected to the bio-interactive electronics 160via interconnects 151. For example, where the controller 150 includeslogic elements implemented in an integrated circuit to form the sensorinterface module 152 and/or display driver module 154, a patternedconductive material (e.g., gold, platinum, palladium, titanium, copper,aluminum, silver, metals, combinations of these, etc.) can connect aterminal on the chip to the bio-interactive electronics 160. Similarly,the controller 150 is connected to the antenna 170 via interconnects157.

It is noted that the block diagram shown in FIG. 1 is described inconnection with functional modules for convenience in description.However, embodiments of the eye-mountable device 110 can be arrangedwith one or more of the functional modules (“sub-systems”) implementedin a single chip, integrated circuit, and/or physical feature. Forexample, while the rectifier/regulator 146 is illustrated in the powersupply block 140, the rectifier/regulator 146 can be implemented in achip that also includes the logic elements of the controller 150 and/orother features of the embedded electronics in the eye-mountable device110. Thus, the DC supply voltage 141 that is provided to the controller150 from the power supply 140 can be a supply voltage that is providedon a chip by rectifier and/or regulator components the same chip. Thatis, the functional blocks in FIG. 1 shown as the power supply block 140and controller block 150 need not be implemented as separated modules.Moreover, one or more of the functional modules described in FIG. 1 canbe implemented by separately packaged chips electrically connected toone another.

Additionally or alternatively, the energy harvesting antenna 142 and thecommunication antenna 170 can be implemented with the same physicalantenna. For example, a loop antenna can both harvest incident radiationfor power generation and communicate information via backscatterradiation.

The external reader 180 includes an antenna 188 (or group of more thanone antennae) to send and receive wireless signals 171 to and from theeye-mountable device 110. The external reader 180 also includes acomputing system with a processor 186 in communication with a memory182. The memory 182 is a non-transitory computer-readable medium thatcan include, without limitation, magnetic disks, optical disks, organicmemory, and/or any other volatile (e.g. RAM) or non-volatile (e.g. ROM)storage system readable by the processor 186. The memory 182 can includea data storage 183 to store indications of data, such as sensor readings(e.g., from the analyte bio-sensor 162), program settings (e.g., toadjust behavior of the eye-mountable device 110 and/or external reader180), etc. The memory 182 can also include program instructions 184 forexecution by the processor 186 to cause the external reader 180 toperform processes specified by the instructions 184. For example, theprogram instructions 184 can cause external reader 180 to provide a userinterface that allows for retrieving information communicated from theeye-mountable device 110 (e.g., sensor outputs from the analytebio-sensor 162). The external reader 180 can also include one or morehardware components for operating the antenna 188 to send and receivethe wireless signals 171 to and from the eye-mountable device 110. Forexample, oscillators, frequency injectors, encoders, decoders,amplifiers, filters, etc. can drive the antenna 188 according toinstructions from the processor 186.

The external reader 180 can be a smart phone, digital assistant, orother portable computing device with wireless connectivity sufficient toprovide the wireless communication link 171. The external reader 180 canalso be implemented as an antenna module that can be plugged in to aportable computing device, such as in an example where the communicationlink 171 operates at carrier frequencies not commonly employed inportable computing devices. In some instances, the external reader 180is a special-purpose device configured to be worn relatively near awearer's eye to allow the wireless communication link 171 to operatewith a low power budget. For example, the external reader 180 can beintegrated in a piece of jewelry such as a necklace, earring, etc. orintegrated in an article of clothing worn near the head, such as a hat,headband, etc.

In an example where the eye-mountable device 110 includes an analytebio-sensor 162, the system 100 can be operated to monitor the analyteconcentration in tear film on the surface of the eye. Thus, theeye-mountable device 110 can be configured as a platform for anophthalmic analyte bio-sensor. The tear film is an aqueous layersecreted from the lacrimal gland to coat the eye. The tear film is incontact with the blood supply through capillaries in the structure ofthe eye and includes many biomarkers found in blood that are analyzed tocharacterize a person's health condition(s). For example, the tear filmincludes glucose, calcium, sodium, cholesterol, potassium, otherbiomarkers, etc. The biomarker concentrations in the tear film can besystematically different than the corresponding concentrations of thebiomarkers in the blood, but a relationship between the twoconcentration levels can be established to map tear film biomarkerconcentration values to blood concentration levels. For example, thetear film concentration of glucose can be established (e.g., empiricallydetermined) to be approximately one tenth the corresponding bloodglucose concentration. Thus, measuring tear film analyte concentrationlevels provides a non-invasive technique for monitoring biomarker levelsin comparison to blood sampling techniques performed by lancing a volumeof blood to be analyzed outside a person's body. Moreover, theophthalmic analyte bio-sensor platform disclosed here can be operatedsubstantially continuously to enable real time monitoring of analyteconcentrations.

To perform a reading with the system 100 configured as a tear filmanalyte monitor, the external reader 180 can emit radio frequencyradiation 171 that is harvested to power the eye-mountable device 110via the power supply 140. Radio frequency electrical signals captured bythe energy harvesting antenna 142 (and/or the communication antenna 170)are rectified and/or regulated in the rectifier/regulator 146 and aregulated DC supply voltage 147 is provided to the controller 150. Theradio frequency radiation 171 thus turns on the electronic componentswithin the eye-mountable device 110. Once turned on, the controller 150operates the analyte bio-sensor 162 to measure an analyte concentrationlevel. For example, the sensor interface module 152 can apply a voltagebetween a working electrode and a reference electrode in the analytebio-sensor 162. The applied voltage can be sufficient to cause theanalyte to undergo an electrochemical reaction at the working electrodeand thereby generate an amperometric current that can be measuredthrough the working electrode. The measured amperometric current canprovide the sensor reading (“result”) indicative of the analyteconcentration. The controller 150 can operate the antenna 170 tocommunicate the sensor reading back to the external reader 180 (e.g.,via the communication circuit 156). The sensor reading can becommunicated by, for example, modulating an impedance of thecommunication antenna 170 such that the modulation in impedance isdetected by the external reader 180. The modulation in antenna impedancecan be detected by, for example, backscatter radiation from the antenna170.

In some embodiments, the system 100 can operate to non-continuously(“intermittently”) supply energy to the eye-mountable device 110 topower the controller 150 and electronics 160. For example, radiofrequency radiation 171 can be supplied to power the eye-mountabledevice 110 long enough to carry out a tear film analyte concentrationmeasurement and communicate the results. For example, the supplied radiofrequency radiation can provide sufficient power to apply a potentialbetween a working electrode and a reference electrode sufficient toinduce electrochemical reactions at the working electrode, measure theresulting amperometric current, and modulate the antenna impedance toadjust the backscatter radiation in a manner indicative of the measuredamperometric current. In such an example, the supplied radio frequencyradiation 171 can be considered an interrogation signal from theexternal reader 180 to the eye-mountable device 110 to request ameasurement. By periodically interrogating the eye-mountable device 110(e.g., by supplying radio frequency radiation 171 to temporarily turnthe device on) and storing the sensor results (e.g., via the datastorage 183), the external reader 180 can accumulate a set of analyteconcentration measurements over time without continuously powering theeye-mountable device 110.

FIG. 2A is a top view of an example eye-mountable electronic device 210(or ophthalmic electronics platform). FIG. 2B is an aspect view of theexample eye-mountable electronic device shown in FIG. 2A. It is notedthat relative dimensions in FIGS. 2A and 2B are not necessarily toscale, but have been rendered for purposes of explanation only indescribing the arrangement of the example eye-mountable electronicdevice 210. The eye-mountable device 210 is formed of a polymericmaterial 220 shaped as a curved disk. The polymeric material 220 can bea substantially transparent material to allow incident light to betransmitted to the eye while the eye-mountable device 210 is mounted tothe eye. The polymeric material 220 can be a biocompatible materialsimilar to those employed to form vision correction and/or cosmeticcontact lenses in optometry, such as polyethylene terephthalate (“PET”),polymethyl methacrylate (“PMMA”), polyhydroxyethylmethacrylate(“polyHEMA”), silicone hydrogels, combinations of these, etc. Thepolymeric material 220 can be formed with one side having a concavesurface 226 suitable to fit over a corneal surface of an eye. Theopposite side of the disk can have a convex surface 224 that does notinterfere with eyelid motion while the eye-mountable device 210 ismounted to the eye. A circular outer side edge 228 connects the concavesurface 224 and convex surface 226.

The eye-mountable device 210 can have dimensions similar to a visioncorrection and/or cosmetic contact lenses, such as a diameter ofapproximately 1 centimeter, and a thickness of about 0.1 to about 0.5millimeters. However, the diameter and thickness values are provided forexplanatory purposes only. In some embodiments, the dimensions of theeye-mountable device 210 can be selected according to the size and/orshape of the corneal surface of the wearer's eye.

The polymeric material 220 can be formed with a curved shape in avariety of ways. For example, techniques similar to those employed toform vision-correction contact lenses, such as heat molding, injectionmolding, spin casting, etc. can be employed to form the polymericmaterial 220. While the eye-mountable device 210 is mounted in an eye,the convex surface 224 faces outward to the ambient environment whilethe concave surface 226 faces inward, toward the corneal surface. Theconvex surface 224 can therefore be considered an outer, top surface ofthe eye-mountable device 210 whereas the concave surface 226 can beconsidered an inner, bottom surface. The “bottom” view shown in FIG. 2Ais facing the concave surface 226. From the bottom view shown in FIG.2A, the outer periphery 222, near the outer circumference of the curveddisk is curved to extend out of the page, whereas the central region221, near the center of the disk is curved to extend into the page.

A substrate 230 is embedded in the polymeric material 220. The substrate230 can be embedded to be situated along the outer periphery 222 of thepolymeric material 220, away from the central region 221. The substrate230 does not interfere with vision because it is too close to the eye tobe in focus and is positioned away from the central region 221 whereincident light is transmitted to the eye-sensing portions of the eye.Moreover, the substrate 230 can be formed of a transparent material tofurther mitigate effects on visual perception.

The substrate 230 can be shaped as a flat, circular ring (e.g., a diskwith a centered hole). The flat surface of the substrate 230 (e.g.,along the radial width) is a platform for mounting electronics such aschips (e.g., via flip-chip mounting) and for patterning conductivematerials (e.g., via microfabrication techniques such asphotolithography, deposition, plating, etc.) to form electrodes,antenna(e), and/or interconnections. The substrate 230 and the polymericmaterial 220 can be approximately cylindrically symmetric about a commoncentral axis. The substrate 230 can have, for example, a diameter ofabout 10 millimeters, a radial width of about 1 millimeter (e.g., anouter radius 1 millimeter greater than an inner radius), and a thicknessof about 50 micrometers. However, these dimensions are provided forexample purposes only, and in no way limit the present disclosure. Thesubstrate 230 can be implemented in a variety of different form factors,similar to the discussion of the substrate 130 in connection with FIG. 1above.

A loop antenna 270, controller 250, and sensor electronics 260 aredisposed on the embedded substrate 230. The controller 250 can be a chipincluding logic elements configured to operate the sensor electronics260 and the loop antenna 270. The controller 250 is electricallyconnected to the loop antenna 270 by interconnects 257 also situated onthe substrate 230. Similarly, the controller 250 is electricallyconnected to the sensor electronics 260 by an interconnect 251. Theinterconnects 251, 257, the loop antenna 270, and any conductiveelectrodes (e.g., for an electrochemical analyte sensor, etc.) can beformed from conductive materials patterned on the substrate 230 by aprocess for precisely patterning such materials, such as deposition,photolithography, etc. The conductive materials patterned on thesubstrate 230 can be, for example, gold, platinum, palladium, titanium,carbon, aluminum, copper, silver, silver-chloride, conductors formedfrom noble materials, metals, combinations of these, etc.

As shown in FIG. 2A, which is a view facing the convex surface 224 ofthe eye-mountable device 210, the bio-interactive electronics module 260is mounted to a side of the substrate 230 facing the convex surface 224.Where the bio-interactive electronics module 260 includes an analytebio-sensor, for example, mounting such a bio-sensor on the substrate 230to be close to the convex surface 224 allows the bio-sensor to senseanalyte concentrations in tear film 42 coating the convex surface 224 ofthe polymeric material 220 (e.g., a tear film layer distributed byeyelid motion). However, the electronics, electrodes, etc. situated onthe substrate 230 can be mounted to either the “inward” facing side(e.g., situated closest to the concave surface 226) or the “outward”facing side (e.g., situated closest to the convex surface 224).Moreover, in some embodiments, some electronic components can be mountedon one side of the substrate 230, while other electronic components aremounted to the opposing side, and connections between the two can bemade through conductive materials passing through the substrate 230.

The loop antenna 270 is a layer of conductive material patterned alongthe flat surface of the substrate to form a flat conductive ring. Insome examples, to allow additional flexibility along the curvature ofthe polymeric material, the loop antenna 270 can include multiplesubstantially concentric sections electrically joined together. Eachsection can then flex independently along the concave/convex curvatureof the eye-mountable device 210. In some examples, the loop antenna 270can be formed without making a complete loop. For instances, the antenna270 can have a cutout to allow room for the controller 250 and sensorelectronics 260, as illustrated in FIG. 2A. However, the loop antenna270 can also be arranged as a continuous strip of conductive materialthat wraps entirely around the flat surface of the substrate 230 one ormore times. For example, a strip of conductive material with multiplewindings can be patterned on the side of the substrate 230 opposite thecontroller 250 and sensor electronics 260. Interconnects between theends of such a wound antenna (e.g., the antenna leads) can then bepassed through the substrate 230 to the controller 250.

FIG. 2C is a side cross-section view of the example eye-mountableelectronic device 210 while mounted to a corneal surface 22 of an eye10. FIG. 2D is a close-in side cross-section view enhanced to show thesensor electronics 260 on the example eye-mountable device 210 whenmounted as shown in FIG. 2C. As shown in FIG. 2D, while mounted to thecorneal surface 22, tear film layers 40, 42 coat the concave surface 226and convex surface 224. It is noted that the relative dimensions inFIGS. 2C and 2D are not necessarily to scale, but have been rendered forpurposes of explanation only in describing the arrangement of theexample eye-mountable electronic device 210. For example, the totalthickness of the eye-mountable device can be about 200 micrometers,while the thickness of the tear film layers 40, 42 can each be about 10micrometers, although this ratio may not be reflected in the drawings.Some aspects are exaggerated to allow for illustration and facilitateexplanation.

The eye 10 includes a cornea 20 that is covered by bringing the uppereyelid 30 and lower eyelid 32 together over the top of the eye 10.Incident light is received by the eye 10 through the cornea 20, wherelight is optically directed to light sensing elements of the eye 10(e.g., rods and cones, etc.) to stimulate visual perception. The motionof the eyelids 30, 32 distributes a tear film across the exposed cornealsurface 22 of the eye 10. The tear film is an aqueous solution secretedby the lacrimal gland to protect and lubricate the eye 10. When theeye-mountable device 210 is mounted in the eye 10, the tear film coatsboth the concave and convex surfaces 224, 226 with an inner layer 40(along the concave surface 226) and an outer layer 42 (along the convexlayer 224). The tear film layers 40, 42 can be about 10 micrometers inthickness and together account for about 10 microliters.

The tear film layers 40, 42 are distributed across the corneal surface22 and/or the convex surface 224 by motion of the eyelids 30, 32. Forexample, the eyelids 30, 32 raise and lower, respectively, to spread asmall volume of tear film across the corneal surface 22 and/or theconvex surface 224 of the eye-mountable device 210. The tear film layer40 on the corneal surface 22 also facilitates mounting the eye-mountabledevice 210 by capillary forces between the concave surface 226 and thecorneal surface 22. In some embodiments, the eye-mountable device 210can also be held over the eye in part by vacuum forces against cornealsurface 22 due to the concave curvature of the eye-facing concavesurface 226.

As shown in the cross-sectional views in FIGS. 2C and 2D, the substrate230 can be inclined such that the flat mounting surfaces of thesubstrate 230 are approximately parallel to the adjacent portion of theconvex surface 224. As described above, the substrate 230 is a flattenedring with an inward-facing surface 232 (closer to the concave surface226 of the polymeric material 220) and an outward-facing surface 234(closer to the convex surface 224). The substrate 230 can haveelectronic components and/or patterned conductive materials mounted toeither or both mounting surfaces 232, 234. As shown in FIG. 2D, thesensor electronics 260, controller 250, and conductive interconnect 251are mounted on the outward-facing surface 234 such that the sensorelectronics 260 are relatively closer in proximity to the convex surface224 than if they were mounted on the inward-facing surface 232.

III. An Ophthalmic Electrochemical Analyte Sensor

FIG. 3 is a functional block diagram of a system 300 forelectrochemically measuring a tear film analyte concentration. Thesystem 300 includes an eye-mountable device 310 with embedded electroniccomponents powered by an external reader 340. The eye-mountable device310 includes an antenna 312 for capturing radio frequency radiation 341from the external reader 340. The eye-mountable device 310 includes arectifier 314, an energy storage 316, and regulator 318 for generatingpower supply voltages 330, 332 to operate the embedded electronics. Theeye-mountable device 310 includes an electrochemical sensor 320 with aworking electrode 322 and a reference electrode 323 driven by a sensorinterface 321. The eye-mountable device 310 includes hardware logic 324for communicating results from the sensor 320 to the external reader 340by modulating (325) the impedance of the antenna 312. Similar to theeye-mountable devices 110, 210 discussed above in connection with FIGS.1 and 2, the eye-mountable device 310 can include a mounting substrateembedded within a polymeric material configured to be mounted to an eye.The electrochemical sensor 320 can be situated on a mounting surface ofsuch a substrate proximate the surface of the eye (e.g., correspondingto the bio-interactive electronics 260 on the inward-facing side 232 ofthe substrate 230) to measure analyte concentration in a tear film layerinterposed between the eye-mountable device 310 and the eye (e.g., theinner tear film layer 40 between the eye-mountable device 210 and thecorneal surface 22).

With reference to FIG. 3, the electrochemical sensor 320 measuresanalyte concentration by applying a voltage between the electrodes 322,323 that is sufficient to cause products of the analyte catalyzed by thereagent to electrochemically react (e.g., a reduction and/or oxidizationreaction) at the working electrode 322. The electrochemical reactions atthe working electrode 322 generate an amperometric current that can bemeasured at the working electrode 322. The sensor interface 321 can, forexample, apply a reduction voltage between the working electrode 322 andthe reference electrode 323 to reduce products from thereagent-catalyzed analyte at the working electrode 322. Additionally oralternatively, the sensor interface 321 can apply an oxidation voltagebetween the working electrode 322 and the reference electrode 323 tooxidize the products from the reagent-catalyzed analyte at the workingelectrode 322. The sensor interface 321 measures the amperometriccurrent and provides an output to the hardware logic 324. The sensorinterface 321 can include, for example, a potentiostat connected to bothelectrodes 322, 323 to simultaneously apply a voltage between theworking electrode 322 and the reference electrode 323 and measure theresulting amperometric current through the working electrode 322.

The rectifier 314, energy storage 316, and voltage regulator 318 operateto harvest energy from received radio frequency radiation 341. The radiofrequency radiation 341 causes radio frequency electrical signals onleads of the antenna 312. The rectifier 314 is connected to the antennaleads and converts the radio frequency electrical signals to a DCvoltage. The energy storage 316 (e.g., capacitor) is connected acrossthe output of the rectifier 314 to filter high frequency noise on the DCvoltage. The regulator 318 receives the filtered DC voltage and outputsboth a digital supply voltage 330 to operate the hardware logic 324 andan analog supply voltage 332 to operate the electrochemical sensor 320.For example, the analog supply voltage can be a voltage used by thesensor interface 321 to apply a voltage between the sensor electrodes322, 323 to generate an amperometric current. The digital supply voltage330 can be a voltage suitable for driving digital logic circuitry, suchas approximately 1.2 volts, approximately 3 volts, etc. Reception of theradio frequency radiation 341 from the external reader 340 (or anothersource, such as ambient radiation, etc.) causes the supply voltages 330,332 to be supplied to the sensor 320 and hardware logic 324. Whilepowered, the sensor 320 and hardware logic 324 are configured togenerate and measure an amperometric current and communicate theresults.

The sensor results can be communicated back to the external reader 340via backscatter radiation 343 from the antenna 312. The hardware logic324 receives the output current from the electrochemical sensor 320 andmodulates (325) the impedance of the antenna 312 in accordance with theamperometric current measured by the sensor 320. The antenna impedanceand/or change in antenna impedance is detected by the external reader340 via the backscatter signal 343. The external reader 340 can includean antenna front end 342 and logic components 344 to decode theinformation indicated by the backscatter signal 343 and provide digitalinputs to a processing system 346. The external reader 340 associatesthe backscatter signal 343 with the sensor result (e.g., via theprocessing system 346 according to a pre-programmed relationshipassociating impedance of the antenna 312 with output from the sensor320). The processing system 346 can then store the indicated sensorresults (e.g., tear film analyte concentration values) in a local memoryand/or a network-connected memory.

In some embodiments, one or more of the features shown as separatefunctional blocks can be implemented (“packaged”) on a single chip. Forexample, the eye-mountable device 310 can be implemented with therectifier 314, energy storage 316, voltage regulator 318, sensorinterface 321, and the hardware logic 324 packaged together in a singlechip or controller module. Such a controller can have interconnects(“leads”) connected to the loop antenna 312 and the sensor electrodes322, 323. Such a controller operates to harvest energy received at theloop antenna 312, apply a voltage between the electrodes 322, 323sufficient to develop an amperometric current, measure the amperometriccurrent, and indicate the measured current via the antenna 312 (e.g.,through the backscatter radiation 343).

FIG. 4A is a flowchart of a process 400 for operating an amperometricsensor in an eye-mountable device to measure a tear film analyteconcentration. Radio frequency radiation is received at an antenna in aneye-mountable device including an embedded electrochemical sensor (402).Electrical signals due to the received radiation are rectified andregulated to power the electrochemical sensor and associated controller(404). For example, a rectifier and/or regulator can be connected to theantenna leads to output a DC supply voltage for powering theelectrochemical sensor and/or controller. A voltage sufficient to causeelectrochemical reactions at the working electrode is applied between aworking electrode and a reference electrode on the electrochemicalsensor (406). An amperometric current is measured through the workingelectrode (408). For example, a potentiostat can apply a voltage betweenthe working and reference electrodes while measuring the resultingamperometric current through the working electrode. The measuredamperometric current is wirelessly indicated with the antenna (410). Forexample, backscatter radiation can be manipulated to indicate the sensorresult by modulating the antenna impedance.

FIG. 4B is a flowchart of a process 420 for operating an external readerto interrogate an amperometric sensor in an eye-mountable device tomeasure a tear film analyte concentration. Radio frequency radiation istransmitted to an electrochemical sensor mounted in an eye from theexternal reader (422). The transmitted radiation is sufficient to powerthe electrochemical sensor with energy from the radiation for longenough to perform a measurement and communicate the results (422). Forexample, the radio frequency radiation used to power the electrochemicalsensor can be similar to the radiation 341 transmitted from the externalreader 340 to the eye-mountable device 310 described in connection withFIG. 3 above. The external reader then receives backscatter radiationindicating the measurement by the electrochemical analyte sensor (424).For example, the backscatter radiation can be similar to the backscattersignals 343 sent from the eye-mountable device 310 to the externalreader 340 described in connection with FIG. 3 above. The backscatterradiation received at the external reader is then associated with a tearfilm analyte concentration (426). In some cases, the analyteconcentration values can be stored in the external reader memory (e.g.,in the processing system 346) and/or a network-connected data storage.

For example, the sensor result (e.g., the measured amperometric current)can be encoded in the backscatter radiation by modulating the impedanceof the backscattering antenna. The external reader can detect theantenna impedance and/or change in antenna impedance based on afrequency, amplitude, and/or phase shift in the backscatter radiation.The sensor result can then be extracted by associating the impedancevalue with the sensor result by reversing the encoding routine employedwithin the eye-mountable device. Thus, the reader can map a detectedantenna impedance value to an amperometric current value. Theamperometric current value is approximately proportionate to the tearfilm analyte concentration with a sensitivity (e.g., scaling factor)relating the amperometric current and the associated tear film analyteconcentration. The sensitivity value can be determined in part accordingto empirically derived calibration factors, for example.

IV. Analyte Transmission to the Electrochemical Sensor

FIG. 5A shows an example configuration in which an electrochemicalsensor detects an analyte from the outer tear film layer 42 coating thepolymeric material 220. The electrochemical sensor can be similar to theelectrochemical sensor 320 discussed in connection with FIG. 3 andincludes a working electrode 520 and a reference electrode 522. Theworking electrode 520 and the reference electrode 522 are each mountedon an outward-facing side 224 of the substrate 230. The substrate 230 isembedded in the polymeric material 220 of the eye-mountable device 210such that the electrodes 520, 522 of the electrochemical sensor areentirely covered by an overlapping portion 512 of the polymeric material220. The electrodes 520, 522 in the electrochemical sensor are thusseparated from the outer tear film layer 42 by the thickness of theoverlapping portion 512. For example, the thickness of the overlappingregion 512 can be approximately 10 micrometers.

An analyte in the tear film 42 diffuses through the overlapping portion512 to the working electrode 520. The diffusion of the analyte from theouter tear film layer 42 to the working electrode 520 is illustrated bythe directional arrow 510. The current measured through the workingelectrode 520 is based on the electrochemical reaction rate at theworking electrode 520, which in turn is based on the amount of analytediffusing to the working electrode 520. The amount of analyte diffusingto the working electrode 520 can in turn be influenced both by theconcentration of analyte in the outer tear film layer 42, thepermeability of the polymeric material 220 to the analyte, and thethickness of the overlapping region 512 (i.e., the thickness ofpolymeric material the analyte diffuses through to reach the workingelectrode 520 from the outer tear film layer 42). In the steady stateapproximation, the analyte is resupplied to the outer tear film layer 42by surrounding regions of the tear film 42 at the same rate that theanalyte is consumed at the working electrode 520. Because the rate atwhich the analyte is resupplied to the probed region of the outer tearfilm layer 42 is approximately proportionate to the tear filmconcentration of the analyte, the current (i.e., the electrochemicalreaction rate) is an indication of the concentration of the analyte inthe outer tear film layer 42.

FIG. 5B shows an example configuration in which an electrochemicalsensor detects an analyte from the tear film that contacts the sensorvia a channel 530 in the polymeric material 220. The channel 530 hasside walls 532 that connect the convex surface 224 of the polymericmaterial 220 to the substrate 230 and/or electrodes 520, 522. Thechannel 530 can be formed by pressure molding or casting the polymericmaterial 220 for example. The channel 530 can also be formed byselectively removing the polymeric material covering the sensorelectrodes 520, 522 following encapsulation. For example, an oxygenplasma treatment can be used to etch away the polymeric materialcovering the sensor electrodes so as to expose the sensor electrodes520, 522. In some cases, the sensor electrodes 520, 522 can be formed ofa material that is not readily etched by an oxygen plasma treatment,such as a metal material, for example. Thus, the sensor electrodes mayfunction as an etch stop when forming the channel 530. The height of thechannel 530 (e.g., the length of the sidewalls 532) corresponds to theseparation between the inward-facing surface of the substrate 230 andthe convex surface 224. That is, where the substrate 230 is positionedabout 10 micrometers from the convex surface 224, the channel 530 isapproximately 10 micrometers in height. The channel 530 fluidly connectsthe outer tear film layer 42 to the sensor electrodes 520, 522. Thus,the working electrode 520 is directly exposed to the outer tear filmlayer 42. As a result, analyte transmission to the working electrode 520is unaffected by the permeability of the polymeric material 220 to theanalyte of interest. The resulting indentation in the convex surface 224also creates a localized increased volume of the tear film 42 near thesensor electrodes 520, 522. The volume of analyte tear film thatcontributes analytes to the electrochemical reaction at the workingelectrode 520 (e.g., by diffusion) is thereby increased. The sensorshown in FIG. 5B is therefore less susceptible to a diffusion-limitedelectrochemical reaction, because a relatively greater local volume oftear film surrounds the sampled region to contribute analytes to theelectrochemical reaction.

FIG. 5C shows an example configuration in which the electrochemicalsensor detects an analyte from the tear film 42 that diffuses through athinned region 542 of the polymeric material 220. The thinned region 542can be formed as an indentation 540 in the convex surface 224 (e.g., bymolding, casting, etching, etc.). The thinned region 542 of thepolymeric material 220 substantially encapsulates the electrodes 520,522, so as to maintain a biocompatible coating between the sensorelectrodes 520, 522 and anything in contact with the convex surface 224,such as the eyelids 30, 32, for example. The indentation 542 in theconvex surface 224 also creates a localized increased volume of the tearfilm 42 near the sensor electrodes 520, 522. A directional arrow 544illustrates the diffusion of the analyte from the outer tear film layer42 to the working electrode 520.

While not specifically illustrated, the sensor electrodes 520, 522 maybe positioned on the reverse side of the substrate 230, closer to theconcave surface 226 of the polymeric material 220 and the inner tearfilm layer 40. Channels and/or thinned regions may be provided in theconcave surface 226 to expose the sensor electrodes to the tear filmand/or facilitate diffusion of the analyte to the sensor electrodes.

V. Example Symmetric Electrode Arrangements

In some examples, an electrochemical sensor is arranged such thatportions of the working electrode are at least partially surrounded onopposing sides by portions of the reference electrode. As such, uponapplying a voltage across the sensor electrodes, the surrounded portionsof the working electrode develop a voltage gradient that issubstantially symmetric between the opposing sides. The two opposingsides are therefore at similar voltages and both side edges cantherefore induce electrochemical reactions with similar efficiency.Arranging the working electrode to be symmetrically surrounded byportions of the reference electrode can thereby increase the totallength of the working electrode that is proximate the referenceelectrode (e.g., faces the reference electrode), relative to a sensorwith a working electrode facing a reference electrode on one side, butnot both sides. Electrochemical reactions tend to occur with greatestefficacy along the working electrode at points nearest the referenceelectrode (e.g., where the local voltage gradient is greatest betweenthe two electrodes). The increased length of the working electrodefacing the reference electrode (e.g., two side edges versus one) canthereby increase the reaction area for electrochemical reactions,because reactions occur symmetrically along both opposing side edges ofthe portions of the working electrode surrounded by the referenceelectrode. Sensors incorporating such symmetric electrode arrangementscan generate relatively greater amperometric currents for a givenanalyte concentration, thereby enhancing the sensitivity of suchsensors. Moreover, symmetric electrode arrangements disclosed herein caneffectively increase the reaction area of the sensor electrodes withoutsubstantially increasing the total electrode size.

FIG. 6A illustrates one example symmetric arrangement for electrodes inan electrochemical sensor 601. The arrangement illustrated by FIG. 6A isnot drawn to scale, but instead is provided for explanatory purposes todescribe an example arrangement. The electrochemical sensor 601 can beincluded in an eye-mountable device for detecting a tear filmconcentration of an analyte (e.g., the eye-mountable devices describedin connection with FIGS. 1-3 above). The electrochemical sensor includesa working electrode 620 and a reference electrode 630 arranged on asubstrate.

The electrodes 620, 630 are each electrically connected to a controller610 which operates the sensor 601 by applying a voltage difference ΔVbetween the working electrode 620 and the reference electrode 630. Thevoltage difference ΔV can be a reduction voltage sufficient to cause areduction reaction at the working electrode 620 that releases electronsfrom the working electrode 620 and thereby generates an amperometriccurrent that can be measured through the working electrode 620.Additionally or alternatively, the voltage difference ΔV can be anoxidization voltage sufficient to cause an oxidization reaction at theworking electrode 620 that contributes electrons to the workingelectrode 620 and thereby generates an amperometric current that can bemeasured through the working electrode 620. The controller 610 ispowered by a supply voltage Vsupply and outputs an indication of theamperometric current. In some embodiments, the controller 610 mayinclude a potentiostat.

For purposes of clarity in the drawings only, the working electrode 620is illustrated with a hatch pattern, while the reference electrode 630is not. The working electrode 620 includes a base 622 and fingerextensions 624 a-c. Similarly, the reference electrode 630 includes abase 632 and multiple finger extensions 634 a-d. The working electrode620 and the reference electrode 630 can be arranged such that the fingerextensions 624 a-c and 634 a-d of the two electrodes 620, 630 areinterdigitated with one another. In some examples, the sensor electrodes620, 630 can be at least approximately co-planar (e.g., disposed on acommon substrate). In some examples, the extensions 624 a-c, 634 a-d caneach extend at least approximately perpendicular to the respective bases622, 632 of the sensor electrodes. In some examples, the extensions 624a-c, 634 a-d can extend at least approximately in parallel with oneanother. In some examples, the extensions 624 a-c of the workingelectrode 620 can be at least approximately equidistant from nearestones of the reference electrode extensions 634 a-d, along the side edgesof each extension 624 a-c.

In some examples, the extensions 624 a-c of the working electrode 620are at least partially surrounded on opposing sides by the extensions634 a-d of the reference electrode 630. For example, the extension 624 cof the working electrode extends from the base 622 from a point near thebase 622 to a distal end 627. The extension 624 c includes a first sideedge 625 and a second side edge 626 opposite the first side. The firstand second side edges 625, 626 define the width of the extension 624 c(e.g., similar to the width of the working electrode extension 624 alabeled w_(WE) in FIG. 6A). The first side edge 625 of the workingelectrode extension 624 c is adjacent one extension 634 d of thereference electrode, and the second side edge 626 is adjacent anotherextension 634 c of the reference electrode. The inter-electrode spacingbetween the extension 624 c and the two reference electrode extensions634 c-d (e.g., the gap between the first side edge 625 and the extension634 d and the gap between the second side edge 626 and the extension 634c) can be similar along both side edges 625, 626. For example, bothsides can have an approximately uniform gap distance (e.g., the gapdistance d_(gap) labeled in FIG. 6A). In another example, both sides canhave a tapered (or other varying) gap distance that varies symmetricallybetween the base 622 and the distal end 627. The gap distance dgap maybe approximately equal to the working electrode width w_(WE), or may beless than or greater than the working electrode w_(WE). As a result ofthe symmetric arrangement, the voltage potential is similar along bothside edges 625, 626 of the working electrode extension 624 c while avoltage is applied across the sensor electrodes 620, 630. The remainingworking electrode extensions 624 a-b are similarly situated withopposing side edges adjacent respective portions of the referenceelectrode 630. That is, the working electrode extension 624 b issymmetrically surrounded by the reference electrode extensions 634 c and634 b, and the working electrode extension 624 a is symmetricallysurrounded by the reference electrode extensions 634 b and 634 a.

In some embodiments, at least one of the dimensions of the workingelectrode 620, such as its width, can be less than 100 micrometers. Insome embodiments, the working electrode 620 is a microelectrode with atleast one dimension of about 25 micrometers. In some cases, the workingelectrode 620 can have a width of about 10 micrometers, or a width (orother dimension) between 10 and 100 micrometers. For example, the widthw_(WE) of each of the extensions 624 a-c can be about 25 micrometers.The reference electrode 630 can have an exposed area that is about fivetimes larger than the exposed area of the working electrode 620. In someexamples, the width w_(RE) of the reference electrode extensions 634 a-dcan be approximately five times larger than the width w_(WE) of theworking electrode extensions 624 a-c. Thus, the reference electrodeextensions 634 a-d may have a width W_(RE) of about 125 micrometers andthe working electrode extensions 624 a-c may have a width w_(WE) ofabout 25 micrometers.

The length of the working electrode extensions 624 a-c (e.g., distancebetween the base 622 and the distal end 627) can be selected to providea desired total cumulative length of all working electrode extensions624 a-c (i.e., the length of the first extension 624 a plus the lengthof the second extension 624 b plus the length of the third extension 624c). As noted above, the sensitivity of the electrochemical sensor 601 isdetermined, at least in part, by the number of induced electrochemicalreactions occurring with an analyte upon exposing the analyte to thesensor electrodes 620, 630. Because electrochemical reactions areinduced preferentially along the side edges of the working electrode 620adjacent to respective sections of the working electrode 630, where thelocal voltage gradient is greatest (e.g., along the side edges 625, 626of the extension 624 c, and the side edges of the other extensions 624a-b), the sensitivity of the electrochemical sensor 601 depends, atleast in part, on the total length of such side edges. In someembodiments, desired sensor sensitivity is achieved by configurationshaving a total cumulative length of working electrode extensions ofabout 1000 micrometers. In such a symmetric configuration, the totallength of working electrode side edges situated adjacent respectiveportions of the reference electrode is approximately double the totalcumulative length (e.g., about 2000 micrometers). Thus, some embodimentsmay include configurations with a working electrode that has twoextensions, each about half of the total desired cumulative length;other embodiments may include configurations with a working electrodethat has three extensions (as in FIG. 6A), and each may be about a thirdof the total desired cumulative length. Other cumulative lengths of theworking electrode 620 can also be selected to provide a desired totallength of working electrode side edges adjacent respective sections ofthe reference electrode to achieve a desired sensor sensitivity.

The thickness of the sensor electrodes 620, 630 (e.g., height on thesubstrate) can be 1 micrometer or less. The thickness dimension can be,for example, between about 1 micrometer and about 50 nanometers, such asapproximately 500 nanometers, approximately 250 nanometers,approximately 100 nanometers, approximately 50 nanometers, etc. In somecases the working electrode 620 can be a conductive material patternedon a substrate to have a width of about 25 micrometers, a length ofabout 1000 micrometers, and a thickness of about 0.5 micrometers. Insome embodiments, the reference electrode 622 can be have a similarthickness and can be larger in total area than the working electrode620. For example, the reference electrode 630 have an area more thanfive times greater than the area of the working electrode 620.

The electrodes 620, 630 can each be formed by patterning conductivematerials on a substrate (e.g., by deposition techniques, lithographytechniques, etc.). The conductive materials can be gold, platinum,palladium, titanium, silver, silver-chloride, aluminum, carbon, metals,conductors formed from noble materials, combinations of these, etc. Insome embodiments, the working electrode 620 can be formed substantiallyfrom platinum (Pt). In some embodiments, the reference electrode 630 canbe formed substantially from silver silver-chloride (Ag/AgCl).

FIG. 6B illustrates another example symmetric arrangement for electrodesin an electrochemical sensor 602. The arrangement illustrated by FIG. 6Bis not drawn to scale, but instead is provided for explanatory purposesto describe the example arrangement. The electrochemical sensor 602 canbe included in an eye-mountable device for detecting tear film oxygenconcentrations and/or other analytes (e.g., the eye-mountable devicesdescribed in connection with FIGS. 1-3 above). The electrochemicalsensor includes a working electrode 640 and a reference electrode 650arranged as flattened rings situated on a substrate. Similar to thesensor 601 in FIG. 6A, the electrodes 640, 650 are each electricallyconnected to a controller 610 which operates the sensor 602 by applyinga voltage difference ΔV between the working electrode 640 and thereference electrode 650. The voltage difference ΔV causes the workingelectrode 640 to induce electrochemical reactions with an analyteexposed to the sensor electrodes 640, 650, which reactions generate anamperometric current that can be measured through the working electrode640.

For clarity in the drawings, the working electrode 640 is illustratedwith a hatch pattern while the reference electrode 650 is not. Thereference electrode 650 can include an outer ring section 652 and aninner ring section 654, with the working electrode 640 interposedbetween the two sections 652, 654 of the reference electrode 650. Theinterposed portion of the working electrode 640 is a ring-shaped regionwith a cutout to allow for an interconnect between the sections 652, 654of the reference electrode 650. The ring-shaped region of the workingelectrode 640 includes a first portion 642 a and a second portion 642 bthat are each approximately semicircular arcs joined to a base sectionthat passes through a cutout in the outer ring section 652 of thereference electrode 650. The two portions 642 a-b of the workingelectrode 640 are arranged with opposing side edges each adjacentrespective sections 652, 654 of the reference electrode 650. Forexample, the first portion 642 a of the working electrode 640 includesan outer side edge 643 and an inner side edge 644, which can each beshaped as approximately concentric semicircular arcs. The outer sideedge 643 is adjacent the outer ring-like section 652, and the inner sideedge 644 is adjacent the inner ring-like section 654. Similar to thesymmetric arrangement of the sensor 601 described above in connectionwith FIG. 6A, the working electrode 640 is surrounded on opposing sideedges (e.g., the side edges 643, 644) by respective sections 652, 654 ofthe reference electrode 650. Thus, the sensor 602 induceselectrochemical reactions with at least approximately equal efficiencyalong both sides of the working electrode 640.

The flattened rings can be arranged concentrically (e.g., with a commoncenter point) such that the separation between the electrodes 640, 650is substantially uniform along the circumferential edges of theelectrodes 640, 650. In other examples, the separation between theopposing side edges of the working electrode 640 and the referenceelectrode 650 can have a tapered (or other varying) gap distance thatvaries symmetrically along the length of the extensions 624 a-b suchthat the separation distance is symmetric between the opposing sideedges (e.g., the opposing sides 643, 644).

The extensions 642 a-b of the working electrode 640 can have a width ofabout 25 micrometers, a thickness of about 500 nanometers, and a totalcumulative length of about 1000 micrometers. The reference electrode 650can have a total area that is about five times greater than the area ofthe working electrode 640 (e.g., the radial width of the first andsecond sections 652, 654 can be approximately 125 micrometers while thewidth of the working electrode extensions 642 a-b can be about 25micrometers). However, the concentric ring arrangement may beimplemented with other dimensions.

In some embodiments, the working electrode can be arranged with multipleextensions forming at least portions of roughly concentric rings (i.e.,arcs). Each such extension can be surrounded, symmetrically, byrespective sections of the reference electrode such that the extensionshave similar voltage gradients along opposing side edges, which can thenbe used to induce electrochemical reactions with similar efficacy.

FIG. 7A illustrates an example coplanar arrangement for electrodes in anelectrochemical sensor disposed on a surface of a flattened ringsubstrate. FIG. 7A illustrates a portion of a substrate 705 on which anelectrochemical sensor is mounted. The substrate 705 is configured to beembedded in an eye-mountable device and can be similar to the substrate230 described above in connection with FIGS. 1-5. The substrate 705 canbe shaped as a flattened ring with an inner edge 702 and an outer edge704. The two edges 702, 704 may both be at least approximately circular,although only a portion of each is shown in FIG. 7A.

The substrate 705 provides a mounting surface for mounting a chip 710and for patterning sensor electrodes, an antenna, and conductiveinterconnects between pads or terminals on the chip 710 and the othercomponents. An electrochemical sensor includes a working electrode 720and a reference electrode 730 patterned in an interdigitatedarrangement. The working electrode 720 includes four fingers 724 thatcan each have a relatively narrow width (e.g., about 25 micrometers).The working electrode 720 is electrically connected to a connection padof the chip 710 through a pair of overlapped interconnects 744, 746. Thereference electrode 730 includes fingers 734 that extend from a base732. As shown in FIG. 7A, the fingers 724, 734 of the two electrodes720, 730 can be at least approximately parallel with one another.Moreover, the electrodes 720, 730 can be arranged in an interdigitatedarrangement such that each of the fingers 724 of the working electrode720 is interposed between two of the fingers 734 of the referenceelectrode in an at least approximately symmetric manner. As such, eachof the working electrode fingers 724 has a similar voltage gradientalong both opposing side edges. The reference electrode 730 can then beelectrically connected to another pad (not visible) on the chip 710 viathe interconnect 740 that connects to the reference electrode 730 atmultiple overlap points 742.

The chip 710 can also be connected to other components via additionalconnection pads. For example, as shown in FIG. 7A, the chip 710 can beconnected to an antenna lead, which can be formed of a patternedconductive material, such as electroplated gold, for example, thatsubstantially circles the substrate 705 to create a loop antenna.

FIG. 7B illustrates the arrangement in FIG. 7A when embedded in apolymeric material with a channel 750 positioned to expose theelectrochemical sensor electrodes 720, 730. In FIG. 7B, the polymericmaterial is illustrated by the hash pattern that is superimposed overthe portion of the substrate 705 shown in FIG. 7A. The channel 750 maybe formed by removing a portion of the encapsulating polymeric material(e.g., by etching, by removing a layer defined by a photoresist, etc.).The channel 750 exposes a region including the sensor electrodes 720,730, such that tear film coating the polymeric material is able todirectly contact the sensor electrodes 720, 730, and an analyte thereinis able to electrochemically react at the electrodes. The exposed regioncreated by the channel 750 can include a desired cumulative length ofthe working electrode 720 (e.g., a cumulative length of approximately1000 micrometers).

In the sensor electrode arrangement shown in FIG. 7A-7B in which theelectrodes are mounted on the substrate 705, the extended fingers 724,734 of the two electrodes 720, 730 are each oriented at leastapproximately tangential to the side edges 702, 704 of the substrate. Inother words, the interdigitated fingers 724, 734 have lengths that arelocally parallel to the side edges 702, 704. As such, the electrodes720, 730 are more able to comply with curvature in the substrate 705.Arranging the electrode fingers 724, 734 to be locally parallel to theside edges causes each of the electrode fingers 724, 734 to be locatedalong a single radius of curvature, even as the substrate 705 conformsto a convex curvature of an eye-mountable device (or adjusts to stressesor strains of being contact-mounted to an eye). For example, if thesubstrate 705 is curved to comply with the concave curvature of aneye-mountable device in which the substrate 705 is embedded, theindividual finger extensions 724, 734 can conform to the local radius ofcurvature at each location without substantially influencing theinter-electrode spacing. By contrast, an arrangement with fingerextensions that cross multiple radiuses of curvatures may be urged toadjust its inter-electrode spacing in a non-uniform manner, along thelength of the finger extensions.

While not specifically illustrated in FIG. 7A-7B, the electrochemicalsensor may also include a reagent layer that immobilizes a suitablereagent near the working electrode 720 so as to sensitize theelectrochemical sensor to a desired analyte.

Moreover, it is particularly noted that while the electrochemical sensorplatform is described herein by way of example as an eye-mountabledevice or an ophthalmic device, it is noted that the disclosedelectrochemical sensor and electrode arrangements therefore can beapplied in other contexts as well. For example, electrochemical analytesensors disclosed herein may be included in wearable (e.g.,body-mountable) and/or implantable amperometric analyte sensors. In somecontexts, an electrochemical analyte sensor is situated to besubstantially encapsulated by bio-compatible polymeric material suitablefor being in contact with bodily fluids and/or for being implanted. Inone example, a mouth-mountable device includes a bio-sensor and isconfigured to be mounted within an oral environment, such as adjacent atooth or adhered to an inner mouth surface. In another example, animplantable medical device that includes a bio-sensor may beencapsulated in biocompatible material and implanted within a hostorganism. Such body-mounted and/or implanted bio-sensors can includecircuitry configured to operate an amperometric sensor by applying avoltage across sensor electrodes and measuring a resulting current. Thebio-sensor can also include an energy harvesting system and acommunication system for wirelessly indicating the sensor results (i.e.,measured current). The sensor electrodes can also be substantiallyco-planar and the working electrode can include relatively narrowextensions that are interdigitated with respect to the portions of thereference electrode. The sensor electrodes can be symmetrically arrangedwith a working electrode substantially surrounded by portions of areference electrode such that voltage gradients along opposing sideedges of the working electrode are substantially symmetric. The sensorelectrodes in such amperometric bio-sensors can be arranged similarly toany of the symmetrically arranged electrodes disclosed above inconnection with the example eye-mountable devices described inconnection with FIGS. 6A-7B.

While various aspects and embodiments have been disclosed herein, otheraspects and embodiments will be apparent to those skilled in the art.The various aspects and embodiments disclosed herein are for purposes ofillustration and are not intended to be limiting, with the true scopebeing indicated by the following claims.

1. An eye-mountable device comprising: a polymeric material having aconcave surface and a convex surface, wherein the concave surface isconfigured to be removably mounted over a corneal surface and the convexsurface is configured to be compatible with eyelid motion when theconcave surface is so mounted; a substrate at least partially embeddedwithin the polymeric material; an antenna disposed on the substrate; anelectrochemical sensor disposed on the substrate and including (i) aworking electrode having a first side edge and a second side edge, and(ii) a reference electrode situated such that at least a portion of thefirst and second side edges of the working electrode are adjacentrespective sections of the reference electrode; and a controllerelectrically connected to the electrochemical sensor and the antenna,wherein the controller is configured to: (i) apply a voltage between theworking electrode and the reference electrode sufficient to generate anamperometric current related to the concentration of an analyte in afluid to which the eye-mountable device is exposed; (ii) measure theamperometric current; and (iii) use the antenna to indicate the measuredamperometric current, wherein the substrate is a ring-like structurehaving inner and outer edges, wherein the working electrode and thereference electrode each include a plurality of interdigitatedextensions oriented on the substrate to be locally parallel to the innerand outer edges of the ring-like structure at one or more locationsalong the interdigitated extensions.
 2. The eye-mountable deviceaccording to claim 1, wherein the working electrode includes a pluralityof extensions extending from a base, and wherein each of the pluralityof extensions includes a first side edge and a second side edge that areat least partially adjacent to respective sections of the referenceelectrode.
 3. The eye-mountable device according to claim 2, wherein theplurality of extensions of the working electrode and the respectivesections of the reference electrode are interdigitated with one another.4. The eye-mountable device according to claim 1, wherein the respectivesections of the reference electrode adjacent the working electrode arearranged symmetrically along the first and second side edges of theworking electrode such that while the voltage is applied, a resultingvoltage gradient is substantially symmetric along the first and secondside edges of the working electrode.
 5. The eye-mountable deviceaccording to claim 1, wherein the working electrode and the referenceelectrode are substantially co-planar.
 6. The eye-mountable deviceaccording to claim 5, wherein the working electrode and the referenceelectrode are arranged as substantially parallel interdigitatedextensions, and wherein the working electrode includes an extension thatis approximately equidistant respective extensions of the referenceelectrode such that while the voltage is applied, a resulting voltagegradient along opposing side edges of the extension is substantiallysymmetric between the opposing side edges.
 7. The eye-mountable deviceaccording to claim 5, wherein the working electrode and the referenceelectrode are arranged as substantially concentric partial rings, andwherein the working electrode includes a partial ring that isapproximately equidistant respective partial rings of the referenceelectrode, along a radial direction of the concentric arrangement, suchthat while the voltage is applied, a resulting voltage gradient alongopposing circular side edges of the working electrode partial ring issubstantially symmetric between the opposing circular side edges.
 8. Theeye-mountable device according to claim 1, wherein the inner edge andthe outer edge are substantially concentric rings centered about an axisof symmetry of the convex and concave surfaces of the polymericmaterial.
 9. The eye-mountable device according to claim 1, wherein thepolymeric material includes a channel configured to expose the workingelectrode and reference electrode to tear film coating the polymericmaterial.
 10. The eye-mountable device according to claim 9, wherein thechannel exposes a region occupied by one or more extensions of theworking electrode having a combined length of about 1 millimeter. 11.The eye-mountable device according to claim 1, wherein the workingelectrode has at least one dimension that is about 25 micrometers orless.
 12. The eye-mountable device according to claim 11, wherein the atleast one dimension of the working electrode is a width between thefirst side edge and the second side edge.
 13. The eye-mountable deviceaccording to claim 11, wherein the respective sections of the referenceelectrode situated adjacent the working electrode have an area that isat least about five times an area of the working electrode.
 14. Theeye-mountable device according to claim 1, further comprising a reagentthat selectively reacts with the analyte, wherein the reagent islocalized proximate the working electrode.
 15. The eye-mountable deviceaccording to claim 1, wherein the polymeric material is a substantiallytransparent vision correction lens and is shaped to provide apredetermined vision-correcting optical power.
 16. A system comprising:an eye-mountable device including: a transparent polymeric materialhaving a concave surface and a convex surface, wherein the concavesurface is configured to be removably mounted over a corneal surface andthe convex surface is configured to be compatible with eyelid motionwhen the concave surface is so mounted; a substrate at least partiallyembedded within the polymeric material; an antenna disposed on thesubstrate; an electrochemical sensor disposed on the substrate andincluding (i) a working electrode having a first side edge and a secondside edge, and (ii) a reference electrode situated such that at least aportion of the first and second side edges of the working electrode areadjacent respective sections of the reference electrode; and acontroller electrically connected to the electrochemical sensor and theantenna, wherein the controller is configured to: (i) apply a voltagebetween the working electrode and the reference electrode sufficient togenerate an amperometric current related to the concentration of ananalyte in a fluid to which the eye-mountable device is exposed; (ii)measure the amperometric current; and (iii) use the antenna to indicatethe measured amperometric current; and a reader including: one or moreantennas configured to: (i) transmit radio frequency radiation to powerthe eye-mountable device, and (ii) receive indications of the measuredamperometric current via backscatter radiation received at the one ormore antennas; and a processing system configured to determine a tearfilm analyte concentration value based on the backscatter radiation,wherein the substrate is a ring-like structure having inner and outeredges, wherein the working electrode and the reference electrode eachinclude a plurality of interdigitated extensions oriented on thesubstrate to be locally parallel to the inner and outer edges of thering-like structure at one or more locations along the interdigitatedextensions.
 17. The system according to claim 16, wherein theinterdigitated extensions of the working electrode extend from a base.18. The system according to claim 16, wherein the respective sections ofthe reference electrode adjacent the working electrode are arrangedsymmetrically along the first and second side edges of the workingelectrode such that while the voltage is applied, a resulting voltagegradient is substantially symmetric along the first and second sideedges of the working electrode.
 19. A device comprising: abio-compatible polymeric material; a substrate at least partiallyembedded within the bio-compatible polymeric material; an antennadisposed on the substrate; an electrochemical sensor disposed on thesubstrate and including (i) a working electrode having a first side edgeand a second side edge, and (ii) a reference electrode situated suchthat at least a portion of the first and second side edges of theworking electrode are adjacent respective sections of the referenceelectrode; and a controller electrically connected to theelectrochemical sensor and the antenna, wherein the controller isconfigured to: (i) apply a voltage between the working electrode and thereference electrode sufficient to generate an amperometric currentrelated to the concentration of an analyte in a fluid to which theeye-mountable device is exposed; (ii) measure the amperometric current;and (iii) use the antenna to indicate the measured amperometric current,wherein the substrate is a ring-like structure having inner and outeredges, wherein the working electrode and the reference electrode eachinclude a plurality of interdigitated extensions oriented on thesubstrate to be locally parallel to the inner and outer edges of thering-like structure at one or more locations along the interdigitatedextensions.
 20. The device according to claim 19, wherein the respectivesections of the reference electrode adjacent the working electrode arearranged symmetrically along the first and second side edges of theworking electrode such that while the voltage is applied, a resultingvoltage gradient is substantially symmetric along the first and secondside edges of the working electrode.